Gramatica Completa de Lingua Franca Nova
From LFN
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[cambia] Nomes-s (o -es pos un consonante) indica la plural. -s e -es no cambia la fortia silabal de la parola orijinal. Nota ce ajetivos no ave finis plural! Si otra paroles (como multe o la numeros) indica pluralia, es posable no usa la -s. La seso no es indicada en la plu de casos. Per animales, usa om e fema como ajetivos pos la nom. Un poca de nomes per membros de un familia usa -o per omes e -a per femas:
Ance, es un poca duples de formas diferente:
A fini, es un numero de parolas per roles antica ce usa -esa per la femas:
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[cambia] Nouns-s (or -es after a consonant) indicates the plural. -s and -es do not change the original stress of the word: Gáto, cat... Gátos cats, Óm, man... Ómes, men. Note that adjectives do not take plural endings. If there are other words (such as multe or numbers) that indicate plurality, the -s may be dropped. Gender is not indicated in most nouns. For animals, use om e fema as adjectives after the noun. A few family names use -o for the male, and -a for the female:
There are also a few words that use different words for the male and female:
Finally, there are a few antiquated status terms that use -esa for the female:
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[cambia] Particulas basalEs du particulas basal:
La es usada ante alga nom ce indica un cosa o person ce la parlante ia usa ante ora, o ce la escutante conose o pote vide. La es un forma neutral de esta o acel, e es usada ante ambos nomes simple o plural. Un es usada ante alga nom ce indica un cosa o person ce es nova en la conversa e la escutante no conose o pote vide. Usa un cuando tu pote usa alga si la parola es plural. Nota ce un no es usada ante nomes plural! La preposada de es usada sin un o la per indica la sinifia partal, como un tas de cafe, o la peso de torta. La e un no es usada cuando un parola es usada con un sinifia jeneral, como me ama cafe, torta es bon, la comandante de polis, o nos vade a scola. No es nesesada usa la o un pos preposadas. No es nesesada usa la e un ante nomes propre, parolas usada como nomes propre, nomes consetal (-ia), o formas jeneral (-r). Nota ce nomes propre e parolas usada como nomes propre comensa con un letera grande! |
[cambia] ArticlesThere are two articles in LFN:
La is used before any noun which refers to something or someone that has been mentioned earlier, or the identity of which is understood by the listener (i.e. the listener knows of whom I am speaking, or can see the person or thing I am refering to, etc.). It may help to think of it as a "neutral" form of this or that (esta or acel). Use la where you could just as well use esta or acel. La is used with both singular and plural nouns. Un is used before any noun which refers to something or someone that is being introduced into the conversation for the first time, the identity of which is unknown to the listener. Use un where you might use some (alga) if the word were plural. Un also means one. There is no indefinite article for plural nouns. The preposition de (of) is used without an article to express the partitive sense, e.g. un tas de cafe... a cup of coffee, la pesa de torta... the piece of cake. No article is used when a word is being used in a generic sense, e.g. me ama cafe, torta es bon, la comandante de polis, vade a scola... I like coffee, cake is good, the chief of police, go to school. It is always permissable to drop articles after prepositions. No article is nesessary before names, words used as names, abstract nouns (-ia), or infinitives (-r). Note that names and words used as names are capitalized. |
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[cambia] Esta, acel, multe, poca...Esta particulos pote es sustituida per la o un, e junta un grado de esatia:
La particulos seguente nesesa la, un, o un nom plural:
Esta particulos es frecuente segueda par...
Otra particulos:
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[cambia] This, That, Many, Few, etc.The following particles often substitute for la or un and add a degree of precision:
The following require an article unless plural:
The preceding particles are often followed by...
Other particles:
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[cambia] Pronomes de person
Me, tu, nos e vos es ance usada per indica posese, par pone ante la nom poseseda:
Se es la posesente e la pronom refletante per la persones tre, simple e plural:
La posesente es a tota ora un ajetivo. No es pronomes posesente. La posesente nesesa un nom:
No es formas omal, femal, o neutral de la persones tre. Si la seso es importante, usa frases como la om..., la fema..., la fia..., la fio... Es un pronom spesial de person tre per cosas, si es importante per difere cosas de persones en un frase completa:
No es distinguis de cortes e noncortes per person du simple. Tu es usada en situas ambos cortes e noncortes. On es la pronom jeneral, como "man" en deutx o "on" en franses. Tu pote ance usa algun, cadun, un person, persones, etc. No usa un. |
[cambia] Pronouns
Me, tu, nos, and vos are also used as possessives, and are placed before the noun possessed. Possession may also be indicated with the phrase de me, etc. My house can be me casa or la casa de me. Se is the possessive and reflexive pronoun for the third person, both singular and plural.
Possessives are always adjectives. Mine, yours, his, etc. are expressed by me, tu, se, etc. followed by a noun, e.g.
Note that there are no masculine, feminine, or neuter forms of the third person. If gender is important, use phrases such as la om..., la fema..., la fia..., la fio.... There is a special form of demonstrative that is used only for things, especially when it is important to distinguish them from persons in a sentence:
There are no distinctions of impolite/polite or formal/informal of you singular as there are in many of LFN's source languages.
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[cambia] Ci, Ce, Do, Cuando...Un pronom de demanda es usada per crea demandas:
Un pronom de relata es usada per introdui un frase relatal:
Par ce la situa indica la sinifia, pronomes de demanda e pronomes de relata es la mesma:
Como, cuanto, cuando, do, per ce, e par ce,cuando usada como pronomes de demanda, es averbios, e pote comensa la frase completa, o pote segue la verbo:
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[cambia] Who, What, Where, When, etc.An interrogative pronoun is used to form questions:
A relative pronoun is used to introduce a relative clause (see below):
Interrogatives and relatives in LFN are identical...
Como, cuanto, cuando, do, per ce, e par ce, when used as interrogatives, are essentially adverbs, and can come first in the sentence or right after the verb.
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[cambia] DemandasUn frase de demanda pote inclui un pronom o frase de demanda, o pote es indicada par leva la tono de la vose. Tu pote ance comensa la frase con Es ce..., o fini la frase con ...no? o ...si? pos un virgul:
En scrive, a tota tempo fini la frase con un sinia de demanda (?).
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[cambia] QuestionsA question can include an interrogative or interrogative phrase such as who, what, or why, or may be indicated by rising intonation alone. One may also express questions by beginning the sentence with the phrase Es ce...? or by adding no? (no) or si? (yes) to the end of the sentence, after a comma:
In writing, questions always end with a final question mark (?).
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[cambia] VerbosLa tempo presente es indicada par la forma simple de la verbo:
ia ante la verbo funda la pasada:1
va ante la verbo funda la futur:2
Es posable lasa cade la tempo de la verbo, si esta es indicada par un otra parola o frase, o con un sensa "istorial" en naradas:
Per nega la verbo, pone no ante ia, va, o ante la verbo en la tempo presente:
1 de la lingua creol xavacano, de la Pilipinas. 2 de la franses |
[cambia] VerbsThe present tense is indicated by the basic form.
ia indicates the past tense.1
va indicates the future tense.2
The tense may be left out if it is clearly indicated by another word in the same sentence, or when telling a story (the "historical" tense):
To negate a verb, place no before the verb -- and before the tense marker if there is one:
1 from the creole Chavacano, of the Philippines. 2 from the French.
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[cambia] La moda nonreal: Si... donceFrases con si... donce no nesesa un forma spesial de la verbo. Tu pote usa verbos aidante como pote, vole, o debe, per clari la sinifia. Ance, tu pote usa la particulo ta ante la verbo. Per esemplo:
Ta3 indica un ata ce no es un fato o no es real. No usa ta si la ata es real, normal, per fato, o probable!
3 de la creol aitian |
[cambia] The ConditionalConditional clauses are those involving if or if... then. The conditional nature of the action can be understood directly from the inclusion of si or si... donce. It can also be expressed with the auxiliary verbs pote or vole. Finally, it can be directly expressed by placing the particle ta before the verb.
Ta3 indicates any action which is not real or factual, and so can be used to express situations that other languages express with conditional and subjunctive tenses. It should not be used when the action is real, normal, factual, or probable:
3 from Haitian creole |
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[cambia] La moda nonreal: Duta, vole, e poteNos indica la forma nonreal de verbo usante la verbo normal en la tempo nesesada. La cualia de nonrealia es indicada basta par parolas como duta, vole, desira, debe, o pote:
Tu pote usa ta per indica la forma nonreal, si tu desira:
Ta es ance usada per indica simple la vole, desira, o crede de la parlor:
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[cambia] The SubjunctiveThe basic way to express the subjunctive is to use the regular verb in whatever tense you need. The unreal nature is communicated sufficiently by the words doubt, wish, etc. One can also suggest the subjunctive with pote and vole; Pote and ia pote (can/could) actually mean "be able to...," and vole and ia vole (will/would) mean "intend to...."
Ta (roughly translated as "would," "could," or "should") can also be used to mark the subjunctive, if desired:
Ta may also be used to simply indicate the will, desire, or belief of the speaker:
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[cambia] Pasiva, continuante, e perfetaEs varios metodos per indica la forma pasiva. La plu simple es par usa parolas como algun, on, o los:
La pasiva es ance construida de es segueda par la ajetivo verbal pasiva (-da):
Si tu vole inclui la sujeto orijinal, usa par:
Un otra forma de pasiva usa deveni en loca de es:
Es posable indica la forma continuante con parolas como continua, continual, o a tota dia:
Si tu desira, es posable construi un sinifia de un ata continuante con es segueda par la ajetivo verbal ativa (-nte):
No es un distingui entre verbos perfeta e nonperfeta. Si tu nesesa indica un sinifia de un ata perfetida, usa averbios o frasetas de averbios. La averbio ja indica ce la ata ia es completada ante la tempo de la situa jeneral:
En la mesma modo, on pote indica un "futur prosima":
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[cambia] Passive, Continuative, and PerfectThe passive construction consists of es followed by the passive participle (-da):
If you wish to include the original subject, use par:
There are other ways to communicate the passive:
Another form of passive is constructed with deveni (become):
One may, if desired, indicate a continuing action by using es followed by the active participle (-nte):
There are other ways to indicate the continuing sense:
There is no perfect-imperfect distinction. The nuances of these can be suggested, if necessary, by adverbs. For example... Ja (already) may be used to suggest the perfect:
In a similar manner, one can indicate a "proximate future":
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[cambia] Verbos con ojeto e sin ojetoTu no nesesa cambia verbos per indica fa... o causa.... Simple junta un nom ojeto. Si tu nesesa es clara, presede la vebo con fa.
Ance, si tu vole indica plu clar ce la verbo no ave un ojeto vera, junta se (o me, tu, nos, o vos) ante la verbo:
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[cambia] Transitive and Intransitive VerbsIntransitive verbs may be used without change as transitive verbs meaning "make or cause to...." If one needs to be clear as to which meaning is intended, the intransitive use of such a verb may be preceded or followed by the reflexive form of the pronoun (me, tu, se, nos, vos, se). Likewise, the transitive use may be made explicit with the auxiliary verb fa (to make).
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[cambia] Verbos sin sujetoEs posable lasa cade la pronom sujeto de un comanda:
Per indica la esiste de alga cosa, usa Es .... Per indica la nonesiste de alga cosa, usa No es ....
Alga verbos no nesesa un sujeto o ojeto:
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[cambia] Verbs without subjectsCommands and requests may be formed as verb-object, with the subject understood:
To indicate the existence of something, use Es .... To indicate the nonexistence of something, use No es ....
So-called zero-place verbs are used without subject or object:
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[cambia] Verbos aidanteVerbos aidante presede normal la forma simple de la verbo. Si tu preferi, tu pote usa la nom verbal ("infinitivo" o "-r" forma) pos la verbo aidante. Vole pote es segueda par sufrases:
Como vole es...
Fa es nonusual per ce esa cambia un frase nonojetal a un frase ojetal:
Vade no pote es segueda par sufrases:
Come vade es...
En casos de confusa, cuando un verbo aidante pote es comprendeda ance como un nom, considera prima ce la parola debe es un verbo aidante:
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[cambia] Auxiliary VerbsAuxiliary verbs (often called helper verbs) are followed by the simple form of the verb, but without a word like "to" in front of the verb. The infinitive (-r) may be used after auxiliary verbs, if the speaker or writer prefers. Vole (want to, intend to...) can be followed by a clause:
Like vole are the following:
Fa (make, cause to...) is unusual in that it can change an intransitive verb into a transitive one:
Vade (go...) cannot be followed by a clause:
Like vade are the following:
In cases of potential confusion, when an auxiliary verb could also be understood as a noun, it should be treated as an auxiliary verb first:
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[cambia] Verbos usada como nomesLa forma de la nom verbal plu comun es la verbo simple usada con la o un (o la plural) per indica un caso spesifada de la ata, la prosede de un ata, o la seguente de un ata:
Per crea un nom consetal (la infinitivo) de un verbo, junta -r. Nota ce la ajetivo verbal ativa (-nte) no es usada como un nom consetal (vide su)! |
[cambia] Verbs Used as NounsThe most common form of the verbal noun is the present verb used as is, to mean a specific instance of an act, the process of an act, or the immediate consequences of an act. Dansa, to dance, becomes la dansa, the dance; condui, to conduct (oneself), becomes la condui, the conduct; corti, to cut, becomes la corti, the cut.... Note that this form requires an article (la or un) or plural (-s). It replaces many other forms, such as those ending in -tion, -ture, or -ment in English. To make an abstract noun (the infinitive) out of a verb, add -r. Note that there is no word like "to" before the infinitive. Note also that the active participle (-nte) is not used as an abstract noun, as it can be in English. |
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[cambia] Verbos usada como ajetivosEs du sufisas ce crea ajetivos verbal de verbos:
Estas es ance usable como nomes:
Estas es ance usada per indica un sinifia continuante o pasiva (vide supra). |
[cambia] Verbs Used as AdjectivesThere are two grammatical suffixes that create participles (verbal adjectives) from verbs:
They are used as adjectives and nouns:
They are also used to form the passive and continuative constructions, described above. |
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[cambia] SufrasesComo la linguas creol tra la mundo, LFN evade la usa de frases complicada si posable. Ma, cuando nos nesesa, la regulas es simple: Un sufrase de relata es un sufrase ce cambia un nom. La sufrase comensa con un pronom de relata (vide supra) e segue la nom ce el cambia:
Nota ce la pronom de relata es a cada ves usada! Tu no nesesa usa la virgules, si tu desira. Alga sufrases de relata no es nesesada per la frase, ma sola junta plu informa:
Tu nesesa ance usa ci o ce si la nom es la ojeto de la sufrase de relata:
Si la nom es la ojeto de un preposada, esta preposada presede la pronom de relata:
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[cambia] ClausesLike creole languages around the world, Lingua Franca Nova avoids complex sentences when possible. But inevitably, we find we need to use clauses anyway. The rules are straightforward: A relative clause is a clause which modifies a noun. The clause begins with a relative pronoun (see above) and follows the noun it modifies.
As you can see, the relative pronoun is never left out! The use of commas to bracket the relative clause is optional. A nonrestrictive (nonessential, nondefining) relative clause is one that is not essential to the sentence, but only adds additional information.
Ci and ce are used even when the noun modified is the direct object of the relative clause:
If the noun is the object of a preposition, that preposition precedes the relative pronoun:
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[cambia] Sufrases averbialSi la sufrase referi a la tota frase ante la sufrase, usa ance la parola ce:
En frase du, on pote vide la posablia de confusa: Es la ata nonusual? O es se mano sinistra nonusual? En scrive, la virgula aida. Ma si on vole evade la confusa, es elejes varios. Posable plu simple es dividente la frase complicada a du. Esta metodo es comun en la linguas creole. Un otra posablia es pone la sufrase averbial a la comensa de la frase completa:
Ance, es simple clari si el es la mano ce es nonusual:
En esta esemplo, la ce no es usada per ce la ojeto de aida es la enfante, no la frase completa:
Final, como multe linguas creol, LFN a multe veses usa du verbos seguente si los comparti la mesma sujeto:
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[cambia] Adverbial phrasesCe is used not only for "thing" nouns, but also when the relative clause refers back to the entire prior clause (i.e. is used adverbially):
In the second sentence, you can see a potential for confusion: Is the act unusual, or is his left hand unusual? In writing, the comma helps. But if one wishes to avoid any confusion, there are several options. Perhaps the simplest is to break the complex sentence into two (as is usually done in creoles). Another is to place the adverbial clause at the beginning of the sentence.
Likewise, it is simple to clarify that it is the hand which is actually unusual:
In this next example, ce is not used because the object of help is the more properly the child, rather than the entire clause:
Like many creole languages, LFN often uses two verbs in sequence if they share the same subject:
Complex use of gerunds such as 'at speaking" are normally simplified:
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[cambia] Sufrases nondependenteSufrases nondependente es sufrases ce pote sta como frasa. Estas es juntada par parolas juntante (vide su):
La usa de virgules per separe la du sufrases es recomendada, ma no nesesa. Sufrases nondependente es a multe veses tan nondependente ce los ta es espresada como du o plu frasas separeda:
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[cambia] Independent clausesIndependent clauses can stand as sentences by themselves, and are linked by conjunctions (see below).
The use of commas to separate the two clauses is recommended, but not required. Independent clauses are often so independent that they could be presented as two separate sentences.
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[cambia] Plu o minCompare de ajetivos es indicada per plu o min:
per indica ce un es plu o min de tota, usa la plu o la min:
Per compare du cosas o persones, usa plu... ce o min... ce:
Per indica ce du cosas es la mesma cualia o cuantia, usa tan... como:
Per dise ce un cosa es un serta ordina en un cualia, usa la (cosa) x de la plu (cualia), do x es la ordina:
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[cambia] More and LessThe comparative is expressed with plu, the negative comparative uses min:
The superlative is expressed with la plu, the negative superlative uses la min:
To compare two things, use plu...ce or min...ce:
To indicate equality, use tan...como:
To say that something is the x-most, use la (thing) x plu de la (quality):
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[cambia] AverbiosAverbios es la mesma como ajetivos, e es posada pos la verbo o a la comensa de la frase completa:
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[cambia] AdverbsAdverbs are the same as adjectives. Adverbs and adverbial phrases come directly after the verb, or at the beginning of the sentence:
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[cambia] PreposadasEs 19 preposadas. Algas ave du usas, dependente a la situa ce indica spasio, tempo, o relatas: Spasio
Tempo
Otra relatas
Preposadas pote es ance usada como averbios (sin la nom), par presede la preposada con a, pe:
Averbios con sinifias simile es ance posable, pe:
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[cambia] PrepositionsThere are 19 prepositions, some of which have dual purposes, depending on whether the context indicates we are talking about space, time, or relations: Space
Time
Relations
Prepositions may be used as adverbs (without the noun) by preceding them with a, e.g.:
Adverbs with similar meanings are also available, e.g.:
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[cambia] Juntas
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[cambia] Conjunctions
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[cambia] Numeros
La numero ante la cosa indica cuanto cosas:
Per ce la nasiones no ia pote eleje un sistem per numeros plu ce un milion (bilion o miliardo, etc?), nos sujeste cuatro alternas per LFN:
Si tu vole usa "bilion," es plu bon usa el per indica "milion milion" (10*12, o "tera"), ma continua usa "mil milion" per 10*9. En esta caso, "trilion" ta es 10*18, "cuatrilion" ta es 10*24, etc. |
[cambia] Numbers
Higher numbers are constructed as follows:
For numbers higher than millions, different countries use different systems (billion vs. milliard...). We have four suggestions for LFN:
If you wish to use bilion, use it for "milion milion," but continue using mil milion for 10*9. Trilion would then be 10*18, cuadrilion 10*24, etc. |
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[cambia] Ordinas, partes, e multipliasLa numero pos la cosa indica la ordina:
Partes es fada con -i:
Grupos es fada con -uple:
La numero de veses es indicada con veses:
Somas es indicada con plu:
Sutraer es indicada con min:
Multiplia es indicada con veses:
Divide es indicada per la frase divideda par o simple par:
Potes es indicada con a pote:
Radises es indicada con a radis:
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[cambia] Ordinals, Fractions, Multiples, etc.Ordinals are the same as cardinals, except following the noun.
Fractions constructed with -i.
Multiple units are formed with -uple.
For multiple occasions, use ves or veses:
Addition is expressed with plu:
Subtraction is expressed with min:
Multiplication is expressed with ves or veses:
Division is expressed with the phrase divideda par or just par:
Powers may be expressed with a pote:
Roots may be expressed with a radis:
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[cambia] Ordina de parolasFrases completa: frase de nom sujeto - frase de verbo - frase de nom ojeto.
Frase de nom: particulos - nom - ajetivos
Frase de verbo: tempo - verbo aidante - verbo major - averbios
La "ojeto nondireta" esiste sola como un frase de preposada, ce es poneda pos la frase de nom ojeto:
Es posable (ma no comun) pone un pronom ojeto ante la verbo:
Es posable (ma no comun) pone la verbo ante un pronom sujeto en un demanda:.
En la frase de nom, particulos inclui parolas como la, un, esta, me, alga, multe, cuatro.... Si plu ce un es usada, parolas como la, un, esta, e me (parolas indicante) presede parolas como alga, multe, e cuatro (parolas de cuantia):
Numeros ce segue la nom indica ordina (vide supra):
Es comun usa bon o mal ante la nom (ma pos particulos):
Si tu vole usa multe ajetivos pos la nom, separa estas con virgules o e:
Averbios presede la ajetivos los cambia:
Frases de preposada es preposada - frase de nom, e segue ce los cambia:
Es posable pone averbios e frases de averbios a la comensa de la frase completa, segue par un virgul:
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[cambia] Word OrderThe usual, formal word order is subject noun phrase - verb phrase (- object noun phrase):
The "indirect object" exists only in the form of a prepositional phrase, and follows the object noun phrase:
Pronoun objects may be placed before the verb:
Questions may have the verb before the subject:
Noun phrases are (article -) noun (- adjective):
Also treated as articles are demonstratives, possessive pronouns, indefinites, and numbers. In combinations, articles, demonstratives, and possessive pronouns precede indefinites and numbers:
Numbers following the noun are understood to be ordinals:
The adjectives bon (good) and mal (bad) may come just before the noun. Additional adjectives follow the noun, separated by commas or e (and). Adjectives are normally preceded by modifying adverbs:
Prepositional phrases are preposition - noun phrase and generally follow that which they modify:
Verb phrases are (auxiliary -) verb (- adverb):
Adverbs and adverbial phrases may also be placed at the beginning of a sentence, followed by a comma. |
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[cambia] Afisas
Sufisas basal Nota: Parolas ce fini en un vocal lasa cade esta vocal cuando seguente par un sufis ce comensa con un vocal, p.e. flora deveni floros, florin, flori, floreta, floror, floriste, floreria. Per crea verbos
Nota ce esta verbos pote es ance usada per nomes, p.e.
Per crea ajetivos
Nota ce tota ajetivos pote es usada per nomes, p.e.
Per crea nomes
Parolas juntada Nomes La plu comun es un verbo con se ojeto:
Ajetivos Ance comun es mal o bon con un nom, ajetivo, o verbo:
Plu rara es un nom con un ajetivo:
Afisas tecnical Es multe sufisas e prefisas (e radises ance) de elinica, e alga de latina, ce es usada en parolas tecnical. Esta es usada como en la linguas roman, e trascrive per regulas listada asi. |
[cambia] Affixes
Basic Suffixes Note: Words ending in a vowel lose that vowel when followed by a suffix that begins with a vowel. E.g. flora, flower, becomes floros, flowery, florin, flower-like, flori, to blossom, floreta, florette, floror or floriste, florist, floreria, florist's store. Verbs
Note that these verbs can then also be used as nouns:
Adjectives
Note that adjectives formed this way may also be used as nouns. Nouns
Compounds Most common: Verb plus object
Mal or bon plus noun, adjective, or verb
Adjectives from noun plus adjective
Technical Affixes Many technica prefixes and suffixes are available for the consistent formation of technical, scientific, and medical terms from Latin and Greek sources. They are used as in the romance languages, and follow the rule of transcription available here. |
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[cambia] PuntuaLa punta ( . ) indica la fini de un frase completa. La parola prima de un frase completa debe comensa con un letera grande. Virgulas ( , ) es usada per separe la membros de un lista, o sufrases en un frase completa. La sinia de demanda ( ? ) es usada a la fini de demandas. La sinia de esclama ( ! ) es usada a la fini de frases completa ce ave un emosia potente si parlante. Du puntas ( : ) es usada ante un lista ce no es incluida en la frase completa. Un punta e virgul ( ; ) es usada per separe membros de un lista pos du puntas si los es ance frases. La sinia de junta longa ( -- ) e la bracetas curvada ( ( ) ) es usada per poner informa nonesesada en la frase o la corpo de la opera. Sinias de sita es usada per conteni frases estraeda de un otra opera o frases ce es parlada par alga person. Varios formas de sinias de sita pote es usada ( ', ", <>, «», etc.). Si la sita continua per plu ce un paragrafo, la sinia de fini de sita no es usada asta la paragrafo final de la sita. Jeneral, la puntua es en la manos de la scrivor. La regula ultima is sola claria. |
[cambia] Punctuation
The question mark (?) is used at the end of questions, and the exclamation mark (!) at the end of sentences which are to be understood as having an emotional intensity if spoken. Colons (:) are used before presenting a list not integral to a sentence, and semicolons (;) may be used to separate members of a list following a colon which are phrases in themselves. Hyphens (-) and Parentheses (()) are used to insert additional information within the context of a sentence, or to add incidental information to a body of text. Quotes are used to contain text that is taken from another text or is spoken by someone. Any of the various forms of quotes may be used (', ", <>, «», etc.). If the quotation extends beyond one paragraph, the endquote is left off until the final paragraph. In general, punctuation is left up to the writer, the standard being only one of clarity. Over time, it would be advisable to devise standards for teaching purposes and universality. |
